French revolution Essay

Before the French Revolution, France was ruled and governed by the king, his Grand Council of ministers, and 13 courts called parliaments. King Louis XVI ruled by â€Å"divine right,† believing that he had been put on the throne by the grace of God. France then was one of the most powerful and wealthiest countries, and had a strong army, and even stronger cultural influence. (Plain, 5) Louis XVI and his wife Marie-Antoinette were shielded from the daily lives of the ordinary people in France. When Louis XVI inherited the throne in 1774, he also inherited many problems left behind by the previous king, King Louis XV. The country had been involved in the Seven Years War, also known as the French and Indian War, and was left with many debts of the war. France was divided into three groups, or estates with their own status and role to play in the country. The First Estate involved religious people in the country. The Second Estate involved all the nobles. These two estates had many privileges, and were the wealthiest group, but were only a small piece of the entire population. The Third Estate was everyone else in the country: the peasants, poor city dwellers, and the â€Å"middle class†. The Third Estate was the largest group, and had little to no power, even though it was the largest group. (Connolly, 8) In order to pay off national debts, Louis XVI increased taxes in the Third Estate, which impacted many of their lives. Because of the taxes, industry started to lag, and there were bread shortages in many places. People of the Third Estate relied on bread as their primary source of food, and when the bread ran out or the price increased, many people went hungry and riots broke out. (Plain, 19) Louis XVI shocked many people when he declared war against the British, even though they were already in massive debt because of the Seven Year’s War. King Louis XVI wanted to increase trade with America, and wanted revenge against the British for beating them in the Seven Year’s war. After the American Revolution, many Parisians were fascinated by Benjamin Franklin, the American Ambassador to France. Franklin told of the new American Republic, where representatives obeyed the will of the people. Talk about similar change spread through France. Louis XVI tried to make reforms by ending the corvà ©e in many provinces, and  outlawed the use of torture to gain information. He also granted more rights to Protestants and Jews living in France, and allowed more freedom of press. However, it was becoming harder and harder to govern with a stubborn parliament. In order to pay off debts, Louis tried to impose a tax on all landowners, not just the Third Estate. The parliament of Paris claimed that only a special assembly could approve a tax, an assembly that hasn’t been called in over 170 years, the Estates-General. (French Revolution ², 2) The Estates-General was an assembly where representatives of the three Estates could discuss what to do. Through May and into June 1789, the representatives argued about how many votes each Estate should have. The First and Second Estates bent the rules to their advantage, saying that each Estate should have only one vote, ensuring that they would win any conflict two to one. The Third Estate wanted a system of majority votes, since it would give it the most say. On Jun 17, the Third Estate broke away and declared itself the National Assembly, which was a direct offence to the people in power, including King Louis XVI. (Connolly,12) The National Assembly created a new law that gave only it the power to decide on taxes. Louis XVI banned the National Assembly from its meeting hall upon hearing this. However, on June 20, 1789, the National Assembly responded by moving to the Versailles tennis court across the street and swore the â€Å"Tennis Court Oath.† The representatives swore that they would not break apart until they had drafted a constitution for the people of France, guaranteeing rights to the French people. Many lower-ranking clergy and a number of nobles broke away from the First and Second Estates to join the National Assembly. Louis feared the combined strength of this group, and could see that people were rising up against him. (Connolly, 14) In order to show the French his power, Louis hired foreign soldiers to go to Versailles and Paris, and fired the popular minister Jacques Necker. However, with the public and numbers from the other two Estates on its side, the Third Estate stood strong. The king, not wanting an outright revolt, ordered the representatives from the First and Second Estates to join the National Assembly to show that he accepted the change in mood, which then changed its name to the National Constituent Assembly. The French people wanted complete victory for the representatives of the Third Estate. They were mad that the king brought foreign soldiers in to France and fired Jacques Necker. On July 12, 1789, full scale rioting began, with symbols of the king’s power the main targets. Crowds of people gathered at the Hà ´tel Invalides, the place where the army stored their guns, and demanded arms to fight with. They rioters were able to get about thirty-thousand muskets and several cannons. However, they obtained very little gunpowder and few bullets. Upon hearing that the gunpowder and ammunition have been moved to the fortified prison, the Bastille, for safekeeping, thousands of people went to swarm the Bastille. The Bastille was originally built as a fortress, with walls five feet thick, but was now used as a political prison, but held very few prisoners. The crowd attacked shortly after noon on July 14, and Bernard de Launey, the man in command at the Bastille, agreed to surrender to the crowd if he was not harmed. But, the crowds took Launey prisoner, and soon after cut off his head and mounted it on a pike. (Corzine, 44-46) When Louis XVI was informed of the fall of the Bastille, he exclaimed, â€Å"But, this is a revolt!† The official who informed him told him, â€Å"No, Sire. It is a revolution.† (Plain, 29) In August, the National Assembly wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, influenced by America’s Declaration of Independence. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen called for political power to be shared by every individual, for the right of religious freedom, and the rule of law. (Plain, 30) On October 5, 1789, thousands of women gathered at the city hall in Paris demanding bread. They disarmed guards and collected weapons and set out to Versailles to see the king. Along the way, a number of men and women joined them armed with scythes, heavy sticks, pikes, pitchforks, and knives. After the king was led back to Paris, he was literally held under house-arrest as a hostage. Louis XVI was convinced by his advisors and the queen to flee Paris and the entire royal family fled under the cover of the night. Many deputies feared that, with the king gone, foreign armies could invade France. The family’s flight was thwarted when they were recognized, a nd were led back to Paris as a prisoner in disgrace, and to many, a traitor. (Corzine, 63-65) By August 30, 1792, France was in a state of terror. The stronghold of Verdun was under siege by the Duke of Brunswick’s armies, which would give the enemy an open road to Paris if it fell. On September 2, news reached Paris that Verdun had fallen. On that September afternoon, terrible massacres occurred. Priests were dragged from their coaches and killed. Mobs stormed the Carmes prison and killed the priests imprisoned there. They were brought to a mock trial, and then executed. The killings lasted for five days, and over fourteen hundred people were killed. Nearly all the prisons in Paris were attacked and the prisoners murdered. (Corsine, 79-81) By 1792, members of the Jacobin club had taken control. The Assembly declared war on Austria and Prussia, but were easily defeated. As the enemy armies marched towards Paris, the people panicked. On August 10, about twenty thousand French revolutionaries stormed the Tuileries palace, forcing the royal family to flee. By then, many of the Revolution’s former leaders had left the country. In September, the French army defeated the Prussians. The National Assembly then voted and renamed itself the National Convention, which adopted the slogan Liberty, Equality, Fraternity. The Convention then immediately abolished monarchy, and, on January 15, 1793, the Convention found the king guilty of â€Å"conspiring against liberty.† The king was escorted to the guillotine on January 20, 1793, and was quickly executed, becoming a symbol of the Revolution. (Connolly, 32) Following the death of Louis XVI, France was waging war with nearly every European power, including England, the Netherlands, Spain, Austria, and Prussia. There was also a small civil war in France, with the Royalists and the pro-Church people against the Revolutionaries. To help France through the war, the National Convention created the Committee of Public Safety, led by Maximilien Robespierre, the leader of the Jacobin Club of Paris. Robespierre stressed the need for a center of opinion and was enemies with many members of the Convention. The Committee of Public Safety tried to de-Christianize France, and created a completely new calendar. The Committee of Public Safety soon led the country into what is now known as the Reign of Terror. During the Reign of Terror, possible enemies of the Revolution were executed. Over sixteen thousand people from all classes were sent to the  guillotine, and flags now had the phrase Liberty, Equality, Fraternity, or Death! But, in July 1794, Rob espierre was sentenced to the guillotine, and his followers followed swiftly. (Plain, 35-38) The National Committee created a constitution that gave power to a five-member Directory, and two legislative bodies. The Directory had serious problems it had to face, such as supplying France with food and goods. Much of France’s population was starving. A little-known officer, Napoleon Bonaparte, supported the Directory and was able to help France in times of need. Several politicians overthrew the Directory on November 9, 1799, and created a new constitution which supposedly gave power to the Consulate, but actually gave all the real power to the First Consulate, which Napoleon Bonaparte was elected into. (Connolly, 44-45) Napoleon Bonaparte established the Bank of France, strengthened the school system, made government jobs, and established a code of justice known as the Napoleonic code. France also conquered many European countries, and by 1806, France controlled much of Western Europe. Napoleon soon became more and more powerful. He changed the constitution in order to give himself even more power, and declared himself Emperor of France soon after. The French believed that their lives were better under Napoleon, even though this was not the ideas of the Revolution. The French Revolution and the American Revolution were similar and different in many ways. The American’s wanted to break away from Great Britain, while France just wanted to get rid of the monarchy. During periods in the French Revolution, over seventeen thousand people were sent to the guillotine to be beheaded. During the war, America had France and Spain on its side and was against only Great Britain. France, however, was on its own, and had to fight against five countries. The French sent the king and queen of France to the Guillotine, but the Americans did not harm physically harm the royal family in any way. After the war, America had two forms of government. One was the Articles of Confederation, which gave too much power to the states, and another one was the Constitution of the United States. The French had four forms of government. The first was the National Assembly, the second  was the Committee of Public Safety, the third was the Directory, and the fourth was t he Consulate. For the French, their lives were better after the Revolution and once Napoleon was the First Consulate. The French Revolution was truly a revolution. The French Revolution was a real revolution because there are political changes, social changes, and economical changes. After the war, the French have overthrown the monarchy, and replaced it with the Directory. However, the Directory then fails, and is replaced with the Consulate. The people’s lives improved after the Revolution. The school system was better, and there were more jobs for people who could qualify. Napoleon established the Bank of France and improved the economy. Napoleon had improved the areas of education, justice, and business after the war, making the French Revolution a real revolution.

If I Could Live Here!

If I could live in one place out of the country I probably would have to say I would live somewhere in Italy, either in Rome, Venice, or Tuscany. I have always admired Italy because of its beautiful scenery and the magnificent architecture. If I were to live in Italy I would not live in the big city even though it is full of wonderful adventures around every corner and the buildings are magnificent I would probably end up living somewhere out in the country side because of the scenery that is there. All of the antique houses and the magnificent vineyards are just simply breathtaking. If I were to live in Rome, Italy I probably would live in the city because that is where all of their architecture is like the Colosseum, or the Trevi fountain, or Saint Peters Basilica. I would love just waking up in the morning and looking out of my window and seeing these magnificent buildings and being able to enjoy the nightlife. If I were to live in Venice I would probably also live in the city but I would live along the canal because I love the way it looks during the day and night when you are along the canal and the soothing sound of the water. I would also like to live in Venice because of the boat rides that you can take around because I think that would be a fun way to get around anyplace that you go. And if I lived in Tuscany I would defiantly live in the country because the scenery there is simply breathtaking and I would own a small little vineyard and live in a cute little antique house. I love the idea of living in the country because it just looks amazing in the morning at the break of dawn and at sunset. So as you can probably already tell Italy would be my ideal place to live because I just love it. Because not only is it remote and you can stay out of the busyness of the city and go live in the country if that is what you like. But if you like living in the city and seeing all of the architecture. And that’s what I like about Italy is its versatility.

How is Walmart effecting our economy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

How is Walmart effecting our economy - Essay Example Additionally, Wal-Mart has a tendency of providing a wide range of products for its consumers especially in the rural areas according to Hicks (2007). This is especially true of supercenters which sell products ranging from garments, cuisine, and hardware to optical services. The lower prices and the high accessibility to products in one area offers direct benefits to local consumers economically. The magnitude of the benefits varies with different regions depending on how the prices are low, and the distance the consumers have to travel in order to access the wide array of goods. The fact that Wal-Mart can trade its products at cheaper prices than other retailers provides an intense risk to the feasibility of other retailers near them. In most cases, the newly established retailers are forced to close or downsize their business when Wal-Mart opens a new branch in that region. This is because the number of their customers tends to decline as they shift to Wal-Mart. Other businesses providing products and services not offered by Wal-Mart tend to benefit due to the proximity with Wal-Mart which attracts many customers as suggested by Anderson (2011). These include businesses providing home furnishings and some foodstuff. Nevertheless, despite the positive effect, Wal-Mart as a whole has depressing impact on the operation of other local retail outlets. A typical Wal-Mart store employs around150 to 350 workers while a supercenter employs around500 employees. However, most of these workers are employed on part time basis. In evaluating the overall effects of Wal-Mart, the new jobs need to be balanced against jobs lost by the competing businesses. Moreover, with Wal-Mart’s extremely centralized supply-chain management, wholesalers and distributors at the local level are likely to experience breakdown on the demand of their services according to Renkow (2005). A good example of the general adjustments arising in the local job market as a

The organizational culture for results Research Paper

The organizational culture for results - Research Paper Example The research revealed the existence of several cultures and subcultures in Widney Cabs Ltd that matched the theoretical models developed by both Schein in the three level of classification i.e. Assumptions, Values and Artefacts and Denison's classification that outlines four attributes namely: Involvement, Consistency, Adaptability and Mission. This study will evaluate and assess the different aspects of organizational culture that exist in Widney Cabs Ltd. The study examines these culture(s) and sub cultures in light of the relationship with models or classification from academic literature, existing knowledge and theories on organizational culture. Jacques (1951) defines organizational culture as the customary or traditional ways of thinking and doing things common to most members of an organization. There exists a significant level of formal knowledge on the subject of culture(s) and sub-cultures that exist in organizations and their effects on the organizational behaviour. Founders and leaders of organizations create these cultures, which are then developed and sustained by people. Organization's executives generate and impart the organization's ideals. They also promote the core values that convey inclination to certain behaviors or effects. Norms on the other hand express acceptable ways of achieving set goals. Studies have shown that the development of organizational culture requires interaction within the membership. (Louis, Posner, and Powell 1983). According to Schein (1985), there are three levels of culture,the basic being Assumptions that form the foundation of culture. Assumptions Espoused values Artefacts (Beliefs, thoughts) (Goals, strategies e.t.c) (Visible manifestations) Fig 1. These assumptions are unconscious beliefs, thoughts, perceptions, and feelings. Next to these are the espoused values that consist of goals, philosophies. Lastly are the artefacts, which are physical manifestations, which may not be obvious to a lay observer of organizational behaviour and process. Schein's model has had a wide acceptance and has in many ways allowed insight on culture. However the model raises some questions: Who is unconscious about these assumptions It is presumed that the researcher will be aware but not the organizational members. What happen to the presumption when the organizational members learn about the Assumptions It is important that leaders learn about the underlying links that hold artefacts; values and assumptions together so that they can better understand the usefulness of this model in creating positive organizational change. Research by John VanMaanan and Steven Barley (1984) shed some light on the nature of interactions. They found out that intera ction was "cognitive and behavioural". New personnel learn from the established workplace community the conventional occupational behaviours and practices that are acceptable across the board. In organizations

Analogy, Marginality and Action. Peter Singers Famine, Affluence, and Essay

Analogy, Marginality and Action. Peter Singers Famine, Affluence, and Morality Analysis - Essay Example In the fifth paragraph, Singer emphasized that helping starving people is a moral obligation by people, but granted that it does not sacrifice anything that is â€Å"comparably† important. For instance, if by donating a hundred dollars in a foundation that feeds starving children and families in Africa would cost the life of your child who also needs the money for her operation, then one will be spared of guilt by keeping the money for his child’s operation instead. In other words, if a person acknowledges he or she can feed a single family in Africa by donating his money allotted for a fancy smart phone, then his action is morally justifiable and is fulfillment of duty. Another important assumption in Singer’s essay follows that proximity and distance are also factors in extending our moral duties to our fellow humans despite the fact that other people around us are not feeling obliged to do so. He emphasized that numbers cannot be used as a plausible excuse for not helping other people who are badly in need because we acknowledge that by donating without considering other people’s interest can actually save a single life or two. Singer’s central premise in his essay is summed up as extending our help to people in dire need, despite our proximity and distance, without sacrificing something that is equally significant. His point was that our morality may somehow explain that it is our moral obligation as human beings living in the same earth to extend our help by not being selfish and materialistic, and not only a show of charitable work because as what he said, people who give to charities are praised, while those who do not are not condemned. In other words, helping starving children, for instance, can well be shown as voluntary and not obligatory. People who choose to buy clothes rather than donating to the children of Africa cannot justify their action because they act in that manner so as to look pleasant and not to prote ct themselves. The Analogy The last sentence of the fifth paragraph tells us an analogy about a drowning child in a pond and a person happens to witness the child drowning. Singer’s analogy fits perfectly with his main assumption that we ought to help other people in need, despite the inability of other people to see her situation, and without sacrificing something that is comparably significant. Simply saying, in that situation, our clothes do not bear more significance compared to a life that is at risk. In other words, we prevent what is bad (the possible death of the child in the pond) and promote what is good (saving the life of the child). ‘Level of Marginality’ In giving away something to the needy, Singer puts a specific, yet abstract limit as to the amount we are obliged to. He used the phrase â€Å"until we reach the level of marginality.† It is like a common version found in the Christian bible that a way to heaven is by abandoning all of oneâ⠂¬â„¢s properties and wealth and giving them after to the poor. Singer requires â€Å"reducing ourselves to the level of marginal utility† (par. 27). In the moderate version of his premise, he does not imply that people ought to live in a level of marginal utility such that their families are likely to suffer in the end, as well. What he

Palliative care and the needs of cancer and non-cancer patients Essay

Palliative care and the needs of cancer and non-cancer patients - Essay Example Nevertheless, efforts to lengthen life or to comfort are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Many patients who receive palliative care feel better and live longer than expected. The boundary between "cure" and "care" is cultivated by eligibility rules for hospice benefits established by the federal government and private insurers to limit expenditures for palliative care. Confining palliative care to those who are expected to live no longer than six months creates pointless misery for many patients. It also unjustifiably weighs down clinicians who, in several circumstances, cannot precisely and truthfully calculate whether a seriously ill patient will live three months, six months, a year, two years, or even longer. This rigid division between cure and care likewise discourages suffering patients from requesting palliative care. Based on the model definition of the Canadian Palliative Care Association, the term palliative care has been characterised as "a philosophy of care and combination of therapies intended to support persons living with life-threatening illness. Palliative care strives to meet physical, psychological, social, and spiritual needs, while remaining sensitive to personal, cultural, and religious values. Palliative care may be needed at any time in the disease trajectory, and bereavement. It may be combined with therapies aimed at reducing or curing the illness or it may be the total focus of care. Care is delivered through the collaborative efforts of an interdisciplinary team including the individual, family, and others involved in the provision of care. Where possible, palliative care should be available in the setting of personal choice" (Ferris and Cummings 1995, p.12). As it is, palliative care does not end with the death of the patient. Although not all families require sophisticated follow-up, a palliative care program must offer bereavement counseling. Physicians and oncology nurses trained to deal with families in distress can help them link up with the palliative care group (McDonald 1998, p. 1710). Early implementations of palliative care for patients with chronic, critical, or multiple illnesses reduce the need for crisis-oriented services. Early palliative care affords a basis for predicting and preparing for the inconvenience intrinsic in the treatment and care of such individuals. In certain situations, especially those children with serious diseases, early palliative care can prepare the patient for life-prolonging treatments such as chemotherapy and make the treatments more acceptable and certainly more bearable. "Quality of Life" As mentioned, a major objective of palliative care is to achieve the best quality of life for patients and their families and this aim is often evaluated by measures of quality of life. However, the concept of quality of life, is complicated and quite tricky to define, being both individual and multidimensional and, although many instruments exist which attempt to quantify it, measurement is difficult. In the

The Economy of Real Estate in China Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

The Economy of Real Estate in China - Essay Example The current situation of real estate market in China is strongly linked to changes implemented in government policies. Regulators have also suggested that the short history of the real estate market in the country and the absence of investment options have resulted in the irrational enthusiasm currently witnessed. Prior to 1998, the government controlled the distribution of property while the real estate market itself participated only in secondary roles in â€Å"dual tracks† systems involving both market mechanics and government control (Shen & Liu 121). However, the rapid growth in the 21st century was also accompanied by numerous underlying problems, prompting the central government to implement measures that imposed restrictions such as checking interest rates and increasing deposits, especially in the commercial and residential categories. The current situation is characterized by high prices of housing, which is made worse by the sustained growth of the fundamentals of e conomics. This paper will analyze the economic issues in China and specifically focus on the real estate market. China shifted from a state-controlled to a market-centered economy in the 1980s. That move placed the country on a highly unprecedented economic growth path. This further led to more momentum in the 1990s after the privatization of the housing industry and the coming into existence of the property market and elimination of the work unit system. The scale of this change and the ensuing repercussions are key factors in the analysis of the economic growth in China. Further, data from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) reports that while real estate contributed only five percent of China’s GDP in 2000, it had grown to the current 15% by 2012 (Wang, Zan & Hongyu 44).

Business Process Modeling Approaches Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Business Process Modeling Approaches - Article Example Paul Harmon comes in to provide much simpler, quicker, less expensive yet equally beneficial ways of improving the performance of one’s business. Paul picks up from Rummler and Brache who introduced a very straight forward modeling approach (Harmon, 2003). They named this approach Process Mapping. The Process Mapping model was further developed to form the Unified Language Modeling and later into the Business Process Modeling Notation. Paul argues that these models involve the use of extra work and he tries to simplify them while at the same time ensuring that the end results will be equally worth it. He starts by saying that any business that wants to carry out a business process modeling needs to identify its current position, reasons for the remodeling as well as what it wants to achieve at the end of the process. In his book Business Process Change, Paul picks up on the Unified Modeling Language to describe and uses it to describe various business processes that may need remodeling if a business is to improve its efficiency. Here, Paul identifies different levels of business process from external processes, top-level processes down to the junior-level processes where roles have been assigned to various junior officers in the company. He says that it is important for every business level to be remodeled if the company wants the best results from the whole business modeling process (Harmon, 2003). Paul Harmon brings out various business modeling diagrams that are essential for a business to have. He introduces that ‘is diagrams’ which reflect the company’s current position, the ‘could diagrams’ which indicate the company’s targets and that ‘should diagrams’ which are a must attain target for the company. He recognizes the need for a business to integrate human activities and information technology (IT) activities in the modeling process for best results. According to Paul, any efficient

Coca Cola's Global Business Strategy Research Paper

Coca Cola's Global Business Strategy - Research Paper Example The company was established in 1886 and the flagship brand spread all over the world. The company runs its business in the areas of manufacturing, retailing and marketing soft drinks, beverages and non-alcoholic syrups across the world. The company sells around 500 brands in 200 countries across the world catering to 1.7 billion customers per day. A total of 1,46,200 employees have been engaged by the Coca Cola Company all over the world in order to run its business of manufacturing, retailing and selling of soft drinks, beverages and syrups in different countries. The company earned revenues of slightly over 48 billion dollars with an operating income of close to 11 billion dollars in 2012. The business of Coca Cola is largely supported by the supply chain and logistics management of the company. The drinks and beverages manufactured by the company in its factories are distributed to the wholesalers and retailers, franchisees of the company, etc. The franchisees, agents and retailer s sell the products of Coca Cola in the regional markets all over the world. Some of the renowned brands of Coca Cola include the Coca Cola, Fanta, Sprite, Valpre, etc (THE  COCA-COLA  COMPANY 1). In order to deal with the areas of risk in the supply chain, the company adopts global business strategies to distribute its products in several countries. Research Methodology The research methodology adopted for this study on the company background of Coca Cola Company and its supply chain strategies to distribute its products in the international boundaries have been explained as follows. This is a secondary research conducted with the use of existing data. The data and required information on the company and its strategies to distribute the products in the international boundaries in an efficient manner have been collected from electronic sources, company’s official website and from the books on logistic management of the company. The data collected from the company is relia ble and have been qualitatively analyzed to determine how the company addresses the areas of risk and achieves efficient distribution of its products in order to meet the international demand of its products. Analysis and findings In order to deal with the risks of supply chain that includes agency cost, delay in delivery of the products due to intermediate players, conflicting interest with the distributors, Coca Cola Company undertakes global business strategy to distribute its products internationally in order to meet the global demand. The company operates a franchisee based distribution network throughout the world. The franchisees undertake contracts and agreements with the Coca Cola Company for retailing of the drinks, beverages and syrups manufactured by the company (Stock and  Lambert 45). The franchisees are given the responsibility for distribution and sale of the products for the particular region. The supply chain interruptions, malicious tampering of products, transp ortation delays are the areas of risk for the company. In order to address the areas of risk, the company adopted the global strategy of replacing existing logistics with an

American Foreign Policy in a New Era Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 23

American Foreign Policy in a New Era - Coursework Example Realism approach was dominant theoretically during the cold war. Realism portrays international affairs as the pursuit for power among self-centred states that is a cynical representation of prospects that mitigate war and conflict (Jervis, 2005). Realism approach was dominant during the cold war since it offered powerful and easy definitions of imperialism, alliances, war and other international events. Realism adopted a consistent competition analysis that was fundamental in the American-Soviet conflict. Challenges to realism originated from liberal theories. Liberalism argued that interdependence on the economy discouraged nations from using force because warfare threatens prosperity of all sides (Jervis, 2005). The other school of thought argued that the manifest democracy derived peace across the world based on the claim that democratic states were peaceful compared to authoritarian states. The third school of thought believed that international institutions could encourage nations to forego gains that were greater than cooperation (Jervis, 2005). While liberalism and realism focused on factors that led to material growth such as trade and power, constructivist approach concentrated on the effect of ideas (Jervis, 2005). Constructivist theories do not assume that states seek survival only. Ideally, these theories argue that states are a product that is malleable for historic and specific processes. The approach pays more attention on the root course of a change compared to liberalism and realism.

Historical Interview on Nigerian Fashion Essay Example for Free

Historical Interview on Nigerian Fashion Essay In line with my background, I found it imperative to carry out this interview in Africa. This was made possible via Skype, as my granddad and mum had a 2 hours session with me on this topic, â€Å"How clothing was obtained in our family during their time and their sense of costume while they were still champions in the village. Other relative questions they attempted to answer in this interview are the nature of clothing production during their time, and how they had influenced their style of dressing. The interview was divided into two parts as clearly indicated above. The first questions were answered by granddad, while the later questions were answered by my grand mum. The era in focus is before colonization. It was an era commonly tagged the ‘pre-colonial’. Nigeria at this time had a very unique sense of costume, basically defined by the resources found within the African environment. They made do with what they had as there was no serious western or colonial influence. FIRST PART INTERVIEW WITH GRANDDAD This interview was conducted with my grandfather who joined me on Skype last night. My granddad is at his late 90, and had experienced different eras in Nigeria. With his wealth of experience as one of the few enlightened African man at his age, he comfortably took me on a ride to the past. In this interview, M represents the interviewer, and D represents the respondent M: What is your general view about African fashion? D: well, African Fashion is unique, decent and special. African fashion communicates in different ways. If you see a king in Africa, you wouldn’t want to ask questions before you you accept that he is a king. The royalty is often defined by their costumes. This is also applicable to native doctors, magicians and soothsayers. African fashion and costumes are original, only that lately, there has been an infiltration of western culture which seems to have adulterated the originality of our costumes, and the era of Obente, skin shoes, skin bags and cloths are beginning to go into extinction. M: Would you have preferred to go with the older costumes as against what’s trending now? D: I still wear traditionally made cloths even up till today. I’m a title holder of my community, and this position is often defined by one’s adherence to African values. I see Costumes as one of those values we must not discard. M: Can you succinctly tell me how clothing was obtained in those? D: Well, in those days, men would usually have little to cover their lower region while the women had a piece for their upper region and another for their lower region. Cloths were mainly gotten from animal skin and sometimes fibres made from trees. Usually, most of us made these cloths by ourselves, and sometimes we buy them. The means of obtaining them could as well differ, depending on who is involved. Then, we used to have trade by barter. Because I was enlightened and had government job, we would buy our cloths with some kind of money called Anderi; then, there was no naira and kobo. We were also engaged in trade by barter with some of the things we had. For instance if I needed a piece of skin to make my shoes or cloth, I would put up my yam or oil for sale. Most of the time, cloths were bought during festive period, like the New yam festival and the Akatakpa festival. Ordinarily, people find it difficult looking for what to buy as fashion was really not the priority as a then. The wealthy ones as of that time wore more beautiful deigns on their animal skin or bark cloth adorned with several accessories. It was always the influential families looked more adorned. M: Were you engaged in the actual buying and selling of cloths? Have you ever gone to the market looking for cloths? D: Like I said earlier, the African man in those days could wear just one piece of skin for days, so the issue of going to the market was really not there. These skins were locally made. The only time we started going to our local markets to buy cloths was when cloths were imported into Africa by the Portuguese and Britain. It was after then, that we began to wear what we have today as cloths, even though it had very low patronage as at then. M: Thank you dad: D: Thank you my daughter and face your studies squarely. SECOND PART INTERVIEW WITH GRAND MUM This interview was also conducted via the same medium (Skype) Here, ‘MM’ will represent the respondent while the interviewer’s remains M’ M: How was clothing made when you were growing up? MM: Clothing was usually made from animal’s skins and back of trees. This means that livestock and economic threes as well as other threes in the forest were sources of clothing. For the making of animal skin, the fur or hair would be shaved clean and compressed to soften, and then it would be tanned. This process unstiffens the hide, which becomes natural leather. After this leather is produced, it is either decorated with shapes and outlines, shells, beads or left plain, this could be as a result of choice of who it’s been made for. Leather clothing could be simple to make as it takes few days to be made. Bark cloth on the other hand was made by peeling off the inner bark of trees, after that is done; it is beaten until it becomes soft. Bark cloth was fashioned into skirts and robes long enough to float around. Then, we would use the fig tree for making bark cloth. Patterned bark cloth garments were made from the different colored bark of various trees, which were combined to create designs, in addition, the bark cloth was always painted for aesthetic purpose. At a point, we went into Batik cloth, which has been important to many African women. Here, pattern is applied to fabric to make it look beautiful. It is resist-dyeing method involving coating fabric with a dye-resistant substance and dipping the fabric into colored dye. I could recall how we used to make the dye-resistant substance from cassava root or rice flour and the chemicals called alum. The substance is boiled with water to make paste out of it for various designs. Once the paste is dry, the fabric is dipped into dye in large clay pots or pits. At the end of the day, a beautiful African fabric is made. M: How has this kind of cloth making influence your style of fashion in those days? MM: It depends on what you mean by style of fashion though. We have had very good sense of costume in those days. All our locally made shoes and bags must always have a touch of the design on our batik. The Batik design was usually seen as the type of clothing that must not be worn by men, because of the beautiful designs. Additionally, because the African woman, or better still, the Nigerian woman applies a lot of facial makeup, which she called ‘Uri’, she would always patronize Batiks that were beautifully designed. M: So when was considered the most appropriate time to wear Batik? MM: Anytime, but mostly during special events. In those days, if you wanted a man to respect you, then you must go with very well designed Batik.

Ethical Issue in Public Health Essay Example for Free

Ethical Issue in Public Health Essay 1. Ethical Leadership in the Hospital Business Due to the critical relevance of the healthcare service for the society, it is important for the organizations and institutions involved in this field to develop their operational system, administrative approaches, and patient care strategies to address effectively and efficiently the healthcare service needs of the community. Important in these institutions is the organizational aspect of their operation wherein the role of leadership becomes a critical material as this manifest as the key element in the ethical nature of their group. Indeed, leadership is important in the hospital institution as this serve as the focal point of the ethical nature and ideal identity of their organization. The leadership characteristics each hospital institution respectively defines their service and their ethical nature. Significantly, the leadership character needed in healthcare institutions is mainly based on their classification organized based on their facilities, potential, and ability to extend particular healthcare service. In relation to their classification, it is important for the organization to develop leadership principles and ethical values towards their purpose of providing healthcare service. In this aspect, the leadership characteristics of each hospital must be towards achieving success in the ethical purpose of their organization, maximizing their potential for effective service, and extending their services in their community. These elements must be fully integrated and must be effectively manifested by the leaders of the hospital organization for them to be able to influence and direct their institution towards the achievement of these missions. Developing the approach in the leadership system of a healthcare organization is often considered as a critical matter particularly the approach that will be taken by the leaders in influencing the entire organization. In motivating the personnel of the hospital towards their ethical agenda, it is important for the leaders to affect the views and ideology of its people through personally manifesting the values they wish to promote. An approach particular to this is â€Å"servant leadership† in which the leaders manifest the values of humility and humbleness in their actions thus, enabling them to lead their group through examples. In general, this approach is mainly means being the values that they wish to promote whereas through perception, the organization will be motivated to follow their leader’s example. Indeed, through applying this leadership strategy in uplifting the ethical values of the hospital organization, the institutions can become effective healthcare service medium addressing the need of the people for better health and better life. The ethical system by which hospital leadership is based actually outlines the needed level of relationship that doctors and other health staff should have with the patients that they are attending to. The level of involvement that they are allowed to have with their patients is usually broken down through the different ethical principles that the said industry applies in the system. 2. Contemporary Neuroscience and the Notion of Freedom The aspect of neuroscience primarily relates to the determination and the analysis of behavioral development of the human being based on the physiological and biological nature of the brain in the human body. In this field, scientists try to explain and understand how human behavior and its characteristics are developed from the complex development of the brain structure from its basic origin of single-celled to the complex formation of the human body. During the past, this field has been limited by numerous hindrances namely the boundaries in the current technological capacity. However, in the present, recent technological advancement with the numerous studies and efforts in this field brought about new discoveries and advances in the scientific field of neuroscience. Among the recent advances in this field formulation of the procedural approach in researching brain characteristics and activities in its fundamental structure wherein scientists are not able to explore the relationship and possibilities in genetic influence with the behavioral development. With the experimentation procedures in animals and the technological advances that allow molecular reconfiguration, neuroscientists are now able to explore the influence of genetic altercation with neurological and behavioral characteristics. In application, this recent advancement paved the way for greater possibilities wherein scientist hope on curing neurological problems and detrimental behavioral problems and retardation during the initial development of the brain. With more research, scientist can learn how to determine and stop possible brain and psychological problems during the fetal development of the human body thus negating its unfortunate consequences in the future. With this possibility, the choice of living a healthy physiological and psychological life can be made possible and available for the every human being, which will be significantly assured even during his or her fetal development. In addition, positive traits and characteristics can be enhanced in each generation influencing the development of the society for the better towards the future. Ethical matters in this part of the medical aspect of development involves the consideration that practitioners place on the capabilities of the patient to decide for their own medications or the process of healing that they are likely to accept in such serious cases of neuro-medication.

Floral Diversity in Organic and Modern Farming

Floral Diversity in Organic and Modern Farming Is Organic Farming better for floral diversity than modern farming? 1.0 Chapter 1 Introduction1.1 Introduction. Agriculture has had a profound impact upon biological diversity. Agricultural specialization, mechanisation and intensification leading to compaction and soil erosion, and poor farm management, have resulted in a global decline in plant, invertebrate and bird numbers in recent decades (Stoate et al., 2001). The Law of Specialization has encouraged the clearing of natural habitat for the cultivation of a few species, with biodiversity being the victim of this â€Å"trade off† between productivity and variety. This â€Å"modern† approach to agriculture was encouraged and sponsored (i.e. through the Common Agricultural Policy – CAP) by the government after the Second World War. The impact of rationing was still fresh in the minds of the UK population and a concentrated effort was made to increase agricultural output. The â€Å"baby boom† of the 1950s also added incentive to these efforts. The drive to increase agric ultural output was a great success. New fertilizers (N, P, K) and pesticides (DDT etc) were extremely successful at improving crop yields. As time went by however, evidence began to slowly emerge of environmental damage. Despite growing environmental concerns, and numerous academic studies highlighting the negative impact upon floral diversity by modern agricultural practices, the world’s population is estimated to rise to 9-10 billion by 2050, which means there will be increasing pressure on land to build new homes. Consequently, global food security is heavily dependant upon technological advances in order to avoid Malthusians scenario of poverty and famine due to â€Å"overpopulation†.   The question is whether organic farming is better for floral diversity compared with â€Å"modern† farming, but ultimately, even if evidence points to the fact that organic is more favourable than â€Å"modern methods†, the question will be will it be capable of meeting the growing demands placed on agriculture and solve environmental problems? 1.2 Early concerns Rachel Carson sounded the warning bell against the processes and practices associated with agricultural intensification in her book, Silent Spring, published in 1962. In it Carson takes a negative view on the increasing use of agricultural chemicals:    Since the mid-nineteen forties, over 200 basic chemicals have been created for use in killing insects, weeds, rodents and other organisms described in the modern vernacular as pests, and they are sold under several thousand different brand names. The sprays, dusts and aerosols are now applied almost universally to farms, gardens, forests and homes non-selective chemicals that have the power to kill every insect, the good and the bad, to still the song of birds and the leaping of fish in the streams to coat the leaves with a deadly film and to linger on in soil all this, though the intended target may be only a few weeds or insects. Can anyone believe it is possible to lay down such a barrage of poisons on the surface of the earth without making it unfit for all life? They should not be called insecticides but biocides. (Carson, 1962). Carson also talked about the detrimental use of Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT). Research in the intervening years have somewhat validated her basic argument, though there were some criticisms concerning inaccuracies in her book. The Stockholm Convention is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from persistent organic pollutants (POPs).   POPs, of which DDT is one of a so called â€Å"dirty dozen†, are chemicals that remain intact in the environment for long periods, become widely distributed geographically, accumulate in the fatty tissue of living organisms and are toxic to humans and wildlife.   In acting as a signatory to the Convention, the Government signalled its intention to eliminate or reduce the release of POPs into the environment. 2.0 Pollution and Biodiversity Our knowledge of the ways in which Biodiversity is essential for the survival of humans, in addition to many other species, is still evolving. From unidentified species to potentially undiscovered medicines, biodiversity is an issue of worldwide importance, providing natural resources which are essential for sustaining not only life on earth, but also economic activities. Biodiversity helps to maintain a healthy and stable environment in which businesses can operate, and its conservation is increasingly viewed by scientists, economists and businesses alike as a key part of economic stability. The growth of environmental legislation in recent times represents a governmental acknowledgement of, and response to, a strong body of scientific data establishing links between pollution and the environment. In the UK, The Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution, established in 1970, interpreted â€Å"pollution† in broad terms of the â€Å"introduction by man into the environment of substances or energy liable to cause hazards to human health, harm to living resources and ecological systems, damage to structures or amenity, or interference with legitimate uses of the environment† (Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution, 2004).   The availability of natural resources is dependant on a stable environment, which is maintained by complex interactions and processes within and between ecosystems. Any significant impacts of environmental pollution on biodiversity can impact upon our biosphere (Trevors, J.T., 2003). The costs following the loss of ecosystem services, and the resources they support, are unpredictable but likely to be considerable, therefore the management and minimisation of this risk should be of high strategic importance to any business. The Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution’s broad definition of pollution effectively means that pollution can be anything that causes damage and/or aggravation to people, wildlife, or the environment such as chemicals, noise or gases. Due to the complex nature of relationships between organisms in an ecosystem, the release of pollutants into the environment can not only kill organisms outright, but they can also change the conditions and processes occurring within a system and result in changes that can degrade entire habitats and disrupt ecological processes. These changes have the potential to cause long-term environmental change through the accumulative effects of their release. Pollutants arise from a variety of sources, such as toxic substances, accidental spills, industrial processes or illegal dumping. Not all pollutants are necessarily man-made, however, human activities often exacerbate or increase their polluting effects. For example, uranium is a naturally occurring radioactive waste that needs to be safely managed, increasing the risk of contamination and radiation that can cause lethal genetic mutations and killing living organisms. In terms of biodiversity, uranium mining often occurs in remote areas that are considered valuable for biological diversity, therefore the control of risks such as leakages into groundwater and food chains is essential. The amount of pollution in the environment is a very significant issue; pollution needs to be reduced in order to reduce its impact on biodiversity. Efforts to reduce pollution often reveal the complex nature of environmental pollution. In the UK during the 1970s and 1980s there was a growing realization that freshwater eutrophication was an increasing problem. Initial research pointed to phosphorus from industrial pollution as the main source of pollution, particularly from Sewage Treatment Works (STWs) due to a growth in phosphate-based detergents. Additional tertiary treatment at STWs failed to reduce levels of eutrophication in the long-term and it soon became clear that diffuse pollution from agriculture was, and is, the main factor resulting in continued water quality problems. The use of P fertilizer has generally exceeded agronomic requirements and led to soil P saturation. Whilst P is an essential plant nutrient, excessive concentrations are affecting the ecosystems natural coping mechanism. The result is one of â€Å"the most pressing environmental problems facing the UK today† (Environment Agency, 2005). 2.1 Ecological Impacts What are the associated ecological impacts of the post-war drive in agricultural intensification? The impact of this intensification on bird populations has been dramatic. Birds provide good indicators of environmental change as they are easily monitored, well researched, and high up in the food chain (Furness and Greenwood, 1993). Between 1970 and 1990, Fuller et al (1995) found that 24 out of 28 species had contracted in range, with a decline of abundance in 15 out of 18 species for which population change could be assessed. Of these species, seven had declined by more than 50%, declines being most pronounced amongst granivorous species (i.e., those with a substantial seed component in the diet). Similar range contractions and population declines were not found in bird communities of woodland or other widespread habitat types over the same period. In addition to fertilizer and pesticide use, practices associated with agricultural intensification also included cultivation and re-seeding of grassland, simplified crop rotations, loss of marginal habitats and increased grazing levels. All of these practices were likely to have an impact on the availability of food for nesting and feeding birds (Wilson et al, 1999). The case of the decline of grey partridge Perdix perdix L. populations in Britain however, complicates this assertion. The decline was partly attributable to poor chick survival as a consequence of the effects of herbicide-spraying of cereals on insect food supply and not necessarily a reduction in food availability (Potts, 1986). However, agricultural practices have affected arable flora in one way or another. What species have been affected? Gramineae (including wild species and stock feed crops e.g. rye grass) Many agricultural practices affect grass abundance e.g. after fertilizer application, grazing intensification, herbicide application, cutting regime and ploughing. However, Wilson et al (1999) show that some of the practices had detrimental and non-detrimental consequences, some promoting abundance of some grasses whilst reducing abundance of others. For example, Increases in cutting, grazing, tillage, fertilizer applications and herbicide usage thus cause declines in species diversity, but favour those species responsive to these conditions, including the meadow-grasses Poa, which are of particular importance in the diet of farmland birds. Polygonaceae The Polygonaceae, represented on temperate European farmland mainly by Polygonum (knotgrasses and persicarias) and Rumex (docks and sorrels), have the capacity for high seed production, making them a rich source of food for birds but invasive weeds of arable and grassland. Reviews of long-term population trends (Wilson et al., 1999) suggest that most Polygonaceae in arable areas are likely to have declined dramatically, whereas in pastures, roadsides, spoil heaps and waste ground, populations may be increasing. Chenopodiaceae This family on farmland is represented by Chenopodium (goosefoots), Atriplex (oraches) and Beta (mainly cultivated forage and sugar beets). In non-crop Chenopodiaceae, herbicide applications and grazing control populations whilst fertilization may encourage growth due to preference for high Nitrogen concentrations. Populations have declined in arable areas (Wilson et al., 1999). Caryophyllaceae The main genera taken by birds on temperate European farmland are Cerastium (mouse-ears), Silene (campions and catchflies), Stellaria (chickweeds and stitchworts) and Spergula (spurreys). With the possible exception of chickweeds, decline of Caryophyllaceae on arable land is likely to have been widespread, but in pastoral areas and other fertile, disturbed areas, not subject to intensive herbicide control, population of chickweeds and mouse-ears may be maintaining themselves or increasing (Wilson et al., 1999). Asteraceae Composites found on temperate farmland in Europe include Arctium (burdocks), Artemisia (mugworts), Carduus (thistles), Centaurea (knapweeds), Cirsium (plume-thistles), Helianthus (sunflowers), Leontodon (hawkbits), Senecio (ragworts and groundsels), Sonchus (sow-thistles), Taraxacum (dandelions) and Tussilago (coltsfoot), all of which are eaten by birds. Of these, sunflowers are oilseed crops grown mainly in warm temperate farmland, whilst the remainder are all found in the wild flora. Evidence points to declines caused by cultivation and herbicide use, and increases in response to increased grazing pressure and fertilizer use. Dandelions are adversely affected by regular ploughing, whereas modern grassland practices such as intensive grazing and inorganic fertilizer application probably favour growth. In the long term, populations of most composites are likely to be stable or declining in intensively arable areas, but in other fertile, disturbed sites, not subject to inte nsive herbicide control, populations may be increasing (Wilson et al., 1999). Brassicaceae The diet of farmland birds includes Alliaria (garlic mustards), Capsella (shepherd’s purse), Raphanus (radishes), Thlaspi (pennycresses), Brassica (includes wild and cultivated varieties of oilseeds, turnips and cabbages) and Sinapis (charlock). Overall, wild Brassicaceae have probably declined dramatically on intensive arable farmland in recent decades (Wilson et al., 1999). Fabaceae On temperate European farmland, Fabaceae are characterised by low, creeping nitrogen-fixers such as Medicago (cultivated lucerne and medicks), Trifolium (clovers and trefoils) and Vicia (vetches and beans). Better drainage and regular grazing encourage legumes, but loss of ley-based rotations has reduced the overall availability of clovers and vetches as sown crops. In the long-term, populations of wild clovers and vetches on farmland are likely to be declining due to herbicidal weed control and grassland improvement, but sown populations of certain clover species (mainly white T. repens L. and red clover T. pratense L.) will mask these declines in areas where grass-clover leys are still sown (Wilson et al., 1999). Labiatae, On farmland, Labiatae are characterised by Galeopsis (hemp-nettles), Lamium (dead-nettles) and Stachys (woundworts). Herbicide applications are detrimental to most members of the family. In the long-term, populations of dead-nettles and hemp-nettles are likely to be declining in arable areas, although dead-nettles may be increasing in other fertile, disturbed habitats (Wilson et al., 1999). Ranunculaceae, Ranunculaceae (typified by buttercups Ranunculus) are in long-term decline in both arable and pastoral farmland, probably due to a combination of herbicide control on arable land, fertilization of grasslands, and loss of pasture to cultivation (Wilson et al., 1999). Boraginaceae, On farmland, Boraginaceae are characterized by Myosotis (forget-me-nots), which are known to be sensitive to herbicide applications. There is also some evidence that populations of field forget-me-not M. arvensis (L.) Hill are in long-term decline in arable land (Wilson et al., 1999). Plantaginaceae, Violaceae, Herbicide application was the only agricultural operation recorded as having detrimental effects on Plantaginaceae (plantains) and Violaceae (violets and pansies) (Wilson et al., 1999). Urticaceae, A review by Wilson et al., (1999) found no evidence of specific impacts of agricultural practices on Urticaceae (nettles). In the long term, however, common nettle Urtica dioica L. and annual nettle U. urens L. are likely to be stable or declining in arable habitats as a result of herbicidal weed control, but are probably increasing elsewhere in disturbed, fertile habitats. Amaranthaceae Amaranthaceae (pokeweeds) are serious agricultural weeds in the Americas (Cousens and Mortimer, 1995), and increasingly so as aliens in parts of Europe. A review by Wilson et al., (1999) found no data on the effects of agricultural operations on the abundance of this family in Europe. 3.0 Analysis of Organic Farming3.1 Organic farming Organic farming has been shown to benefit some species. Recent studies in England suggest that organic systems support more broad-leaved plants than conventional systems. (e.g. Kay and Gregory, 1999). Kay and Gregory (1999) found that, out of 23 rare or declining arable plant species, 18 were more abundant on organic farms, with 13 of them being absent on conventional farms. However, if improvements were made in mechanical weed control technology in conventional farms these differences in plant abundance and species richness between the two systems could be reduced. 3.2 Organic farming a solution? When the environmental problems in agriculture came into spotlight, different forms of organic farming had been practiced in Europe for several decades. These farming methods were quickly presented as a solution for most of the problems agriculture is facing. One reason for the increase in organic agriculture in many countries in Europe today is the need to solve environmental problems. In such situations, we often tend to accept appealing solutions. Furthermore, intensive propaganda by representatives of organic farming movements has had a strong influence on public opinion, politicians, and scientists. But what is the likelihood that Organic farming can meet the requirements of agriculture and solve some of these major environmental problems? Although some environmental problems were already identified as a result of the industrialization of societies from the 19th century, the breakthrough of broad environmental consciousness, as epitomized by the Silent Spring by Rachel Carson, took place in the 1960s. New research orientations, national and multinational environmental protection agencies, and environmental interest organizations were founded. Within agriculture several organizations, sharing a prejudiced view of nature, biodynamic and organic-biological, promoted their agricultural methods as a solution to the environmental problems. One theory of organic farming, biodynamic farming, which is part of a comprehensive philosophy called anthroposophy, was presented by Steiner in 1924. Its aim was not to solve environmental problems but to introduce a form of production forces’. Biodynamic and other forms of organic agriculture exclude easily soluble inorganic fertilizers and synthetic pesticides on principle (KRAV, 1999). A comprehensive review was made by Hole et al. (2005) of the impacts on biodiversity of organic farming relative to conventional agriculture. They identified a wide range of taxa, including birds, mammals, invertebrates and arable flora, which benefit from organic management through increases in abundance and/or species richness. Also highlighted were three broad management practices (prohibition/reduced use of chemical pesticides and inorganic fertilisers; sympathetic management of non-cropped habitats; and preservation of mixed farming) that are largely intrinsic (but not exclusive) to organic farming, and that are particularly beneficial for farmland wildlife. However, most problems that occur in conventional agriculture may also be present in organic farming, such as erosion, nitrogen leaching, ammonia volatilization from animal wastes, high levels of native soil cadmium, accumulation of trace metals in soil, and subsoil compaction caused by farm machinery. Organic farming methods do not offer solutions to many of these problems. For example, the exclusion of easily soluble inorganic fertilizer does not necessarily imply less leaching or less eutrophication. On the contrary, leaching of total N from soil receiving animal manure, either composted or anaerobically stored, can be much higher than from inorganic fertilizer applied at the same N rate if measured over several years. Green manuring can also cause high nitrate leaching losses. From an environmental point of view, it does not matter whether the nutrients come from inorganic or organic sources. What matters is when, how and in what quantity plant nutrients are available to crops, i .e. if the nutrient supply is in synchrony with the demand of the crop (Myers et al., 1997). Crop quality is put forward as an important argument for organic farming. Crop quality depends on the plant nutrient status in the soil, the dynamics of nutrient release, weather conditions during growth, damage caused by pests, toxic compounds produced by the crops themselves and the adherent microflora, contamination with pesticides and pollutants, and the post-harvest treatment. Several investigations have clearly shown that the type of fertilization, contrary to the principle of organic farming, does not affect plant quality (e.g. Hansen, 1981) whereas the intensity of fertilization does. Thus, crop quality is not dependent on the principal difference between inorganic fertilization and organic manuring. Furthermore, considerable variation in crop quality can be found between farms regardless of whether they are using conventional or organic methods. This division into ‘organic’ and ‘conventional’ agriculture loses sight of the principal factors concerni ng crop quality and environmentally friendly agriculture. In contrast to conventional agriculture, organic farming without purchase of feed may result in a nutrient depletion of soils (Nolte and Werner, 1994). Through the import of feeding stuff to farms, which means a net input of nutrients, depletion is normally avoided. As the feeding stuff may be produced elsewhere with inorganic fertilizers, organic farming indirectly depends on the soil fertility of conventional farming. However, regulations about the amount of conventionally grown feeding stuff to be used in organic farming differ between countries. Side-effects caused by synthetic pesticides and drug feeding are not found in organic farming, a positive result. However, the exclusion of pesticides may result in increased concentrations of secondary plant metabolites and of mycotoxins of field fungi. Eltun (1996) reported higher concentrations of deoxynivalenol and nivalenol in grain samples from organic than from conventional farming. Furthermore, in the same experiment no pesticide residues were found in grain samples grown conventionally. Thus, the exclusion of pesticides does not necessarily mean that crop products do not contain unwanted substances. The area for housing and outdoor movement of farm animals has received more attention in organic than in conventional agriculture. This concern is positive and space requirements should be determined for all types of farming. Humans have kept livestock for millennia, resulting in the selection of animals with behaviours that differs from the wild species. The natural behavior can not be the only guideline for livestock management. It is important to keep animals in such a way that the special requirements of each species are fulfilled and destructive forms of behaviour are avoided. In order to understand today’s organic farming movement, it may be useful to know that the highly influential form of organic agriculture, biodynamic farming (Steiner, 1975), had its roots in a philosophy of life and not in the agricultural sciences. A common attitude within the organic movement is that nature and natural products are good, whereas man-made chemicals are bad, or at least not as good as natural ones. This way of thinking may also explain why man-made fertilizers and synthetic pesticides are excluded. Although there is no reason to believe that nature is only good, as exemplified in agriculture by crop failures, plant or animal diseases, and the effects of natural disasters, this romantic way of thinking is widespread. The forces of nature are fantastic and filled with still unknown secrets, but at the same time the results of natural activity may be ‘bad’. That is why natural conditions cannot be the only guideline for an ethical code about interac tions between humans and nature. We have to define an ethical code that takes into account the full truth, and it is our responsibility to do so. As indicated above, views and beliefs originating from a philosophy of life are the driving force behind organic farming. People should have free choice concerning religion or a philosophy of life and a strong ethical foundation is very important, but placing philosophical ideas above scientific thinking, especially if they contradict scientific results, leads to severe communication problems. For example, to demand the exclusion of synthetic fertilizers shifts matters of science into the field of dogma. The fundamental question, why plant nutrients should be added in organic forms or as untreated minerals only, has never been proved. 4.0 Analysis of Alternatives4.1 Alternative solutions The bottom line is that current agricultural practices are not sustainable and alternatives are needed. Plant, invertebrate and bird numbers have all declined during the last century as a result of land management practices, whilst excess levels of fertilizer inputs have led to deteriorating water quality problems (of which, groundwater contamination and eutrophication are perhaps the most significant). The cause has been the increasing intensification and specialisation of farming, with a shift from mixed farming to arable farming in the east and grassland in the west. Biodiversity has also been impacted by the planting of autumn cereals. Whilst Organic farming is being promoted as a better alternative, there is growing interest in the use of genetically modified-based agriculture. 4.2 Biotechnology and Genetically Modified Foods Biotechnology can potentially play a significant input into sustainable agricultural productivity, particularly for poor and/or small scale farmers in developing countries. Some of the benefits include development of techniques to 1) facilitate enhanced resistance to insect pests/diseases responsible for reduced yields 2) ability to tolerate drought/salinity or heavy metals. The Nuffield Council on Bioethics, concluded in 2003 that some GM crops offer real benefits to those in the developing world. Thomas (SDI, 2003) uses the example of half the cotton grown in China during 2002 being genetically modified. The GM crops produced a toxin to the cotton bollworm, a pest that can devastate crops. Yields were estimated to have increased by 10% whilst there was a 60% decrease in reported cases of humans being impacted by the toxic effects of applying pesticides without protective clothing. The report did, however, highlight a need for economi c, political and social change. Watkinson (2000), in a study on sugar beet genetically modified to tolerate broad-spectrum herbicideglyphosate, found that densities of fat hen, a common weed in sugar beet, were less than 10% of those in conventional crops. The seeds of fat hen are an important winter food resource for farmland birds. Skylarks forage preferentially in weedy fields, so therefore the impacts of GM crops critically depend on the extent to which high-density patches of weeds are affected. Argentina provides another example. The uptake of Monsanto’s round-up ready soya was phenomenal during the mid to late 90s. Some 13 million hectares were converted to GM. However, increasing dominance of larger farmers has resulted in many smaller farmers leaving their lands. Traditionally, many people were employed for weeding but increased herbicide usage has resulted in unemployment and increasing concerns surrounding the impact on human health (Branford, 2002). The benefits of using herbicide resistant crops in this context are therefore questionable. Monsanto needs to assess GM application in Argentina in order to learn from any mistakes and develop best practice guidelines for the future. Companies such as Monsanto and Syngenta appear, committed to principles of global sustainable agriculture and both have germplasm protection projects, in addition to community and environmental projects. Monsanto, in conjunction with Bayer CropScience; BASF; Dow Agrosciences; Dupont and Syngenta have established an Agricultural Biotech Council (ABC) in order to promote a reasoned and balanced debate surrounding the use of agricultural biotechnology. However, it appears more like a union to promote the benefits of agricultural biotechnology. 4.3 Biosafety During the Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) negotiations, governments were aware of the potential modern biotechnology had with regards the achievement of its 3 main aims; the conservation of biodiversity, the sustainable use of the components of biodiversity, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources. There was, however, a proviso for adequate safety measures for the environment and human health. This proviso constitutes Article 19 of the CBD, which relates to the handling of biotechnology and the distribution of its benefits. Four paragraphs constitute Article 19 and require parties to the Convention to: 1) take appropriate measures to ensure effective participation in biotechnological research activities, especially developing countries 2) to take practical measures to promote and advance access on a fair and equitable basis 3) to consider requirements of a protocol addressing   (including advance informed agreement) and; 4) make available information about the use and safety regulations, as well as any information on the potential adverse impact of the specific organisms. Decision II/5, established an Open-ended Ad Hoc Working Group on Biosafety to develop a draft protocol on biosafety, specifically focusing on transboundary movement of any living modified organism resulting from modern biotechnology that may have adverse effects on the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. The details and history of this working Group, from its formation to the subsequent adoption of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity on the 29 January 2000, is rather convoluted. Environmental / human health consequences and concerns arising from introduction of GM plants led to the development of regulatory regimes to assess safety. Imports of GMOs into the UK (and EC) are covered by existing Community legislation Council Directive 2001/18/EC on the deliberate release into the environment of GMOs. The Protocol is therefore most beneficial to developing countries without existing legislation on GMOs and who require information before deciding on the conservational and sustainable impact of accepting GMO imports. In the UK, further EC regulations were adopted arising from the need to address exported obligations. Such issues have led to the implementation of EC Regulation No. 1946/2003 on the transboundary movement of GMOs. 4.4 Does Sustainable Agriculture mean sustainable development? The Convention on Biosafety specifically addresses the variety of risks to rural ecosystems, particularly i

Nurturing or poisoning :: essays research papers fc

Nurturing or poisoning? The human race has become fascinated and awe-struck by the phenomenal research and findings of the past century. From improved sanitation to prescription drugs for every cough or ache, technology makes life simpler and healthier. Humans are living longer, experiencing better health and suffering from illness and disease less. Right? On the contrary, in the United States, one in three people die of cancer, one in five suffers from mental disorders and one out of every five pregnancies result in miscarriage (Fallon, 1). Alzheimer’s, epilepsy, chronic fatigue, dyslexia, hyperactivity, ulcers, obesity, arthritis, multiple sclerosis and diabetes are only a few of the ailments that hinder the American population. Chronic disease afflicts nearly half of the population of the United States and causes an astonishing three out of four deaths. Although such physical and mental problems once characterized the elderly, more and more children and teenagers are struck by chronic illness than ever before (Fallon, 1). In light of every medical advancement and scientific breakthrough, why is it that more people than ever suffer from chronic illnesses, obesity and heart disease? The human body is a complex, living organism that has taken thousands of years to comprehend and fathom on the simplest level. Today, most Americans view the human body as something constantly rebelling, breaking down, aging or malfunctioning. With every ache and pain or cough and sniffle, the body demonstrates its downfall and weaknesses. In combating these ailments, the majority of our powerless nation depends on prescription drugs, shots, surgeries and other medical treatments for any chance of recovery or improvement. All the while wondering about the source of such diseases and health disorders. Meanwhile, the average diet consists of fast foods, candy bars, and carbonated beverages loaded with preservatives, artificial sweeteners, salt and empty calories. Although the consumption of certain foods cannot account for every chronic disease and illness one hundred percent, the nutrition derived from food plays an important role in how the body functions. First and foremost, the view of the human body must change in order to comprehend the purposes and intricate workings of its components. In its natural state, the human body is a picture of beauty, wholeness, balance and vitality (Fallon, 1). Thousands of years ago, Galen sought to grasp an understanding of this magnificent creation through experiment, dissection and research. For Galen the body was a detailed masterpiece waiting to be unraveled.

The Searching Game :: Internet Computers Essays

The Searching Game In today's ever increasingly technological world, the Internet is playing a crucial role. This network has the capability to store and make public a wealth of information. Organizing this information and making it easily accessible is a daunting job, but there are many Internet search engines out there that are trying to do just that. A few of the more popular search engines includeYahoo, AltaVista, and Lycos. In comparing these, the most important criteria would be the effectiveness in obtaining information. However, these web sites also have many added perks to keep users on the page. One thing can be certain, web search engines are a much needed service. The First Impression The first time one surfs on to a site's homepage is a critical stage. The page must convey to the user that it is useful, yet not too complicated. These web sites have different approaches to the first impression. One of the first things that jumps out to a user is the page layout. This would include colors, graphics, and the general layout of the links on the page. Yahoo's homepage does not contain a lot of color. It consists of a simple blue background with the traditional blue links. There are a few graphics and the page is sectioned off into different areas. This may be so as not to distract the user and give the impression that Yahoo is a simple, yet effective search engine. Lycos' homepage is also on a simple white background. This page has a few more colors and graphics present to draw the users attention to certain things. One thing that is noticeable is that the search box is outlined with a bold blue. This box is the most important part to a search engine, so it seems only fitting that it be highlighted. AltaVista's web page used a bold color combination for the homepage. The search box is also highlighted here, but this time with a bright yellow. The header is a deep blue which compliments the yellow search box as well as the yellow side bar. Although aesthetics is important for all web sites, they must also be functional. The most important part of a search engine is the search box. For these three search engines, this is always located at the top of the page, for easy access. Some sites bring more attention to this than the others, but it is usually the focal point of the page.